Observations by fabrizi

1. The white-tailed deer is scientifically identified as Odocoileus virginianus and commonly referred to as the Virginia deer, key deer, or merely the whitetail (Arevalo and Gallina).

2. O. virginianus is a highly adaptable species capable of thriving in a variety of habitats including forests, woodlands, plains, fields, meadows, and grasslands (Smith 5). White-tailed deer densities are greatest in edge habitats; zones in which areas of forest and fields intersect (Alverson, et al. 1988). The combination of these landscapes provides spaces for cover, as well as high foraging opportunities due to the greater diversity of plants available (Alverson, et al. 1988). In winter months, whitetails congregate in areas containing coniferous overstories known as deer yards, which provide protection from deep snow and harsh conditions (Hulsey and Wiley). White-tailed deer are the most widely distributed mammal in North America, native to both nearctic and neotropical biogeographic regions (Arevalo and Gallina). They inhabit majority of southern Canada and the United States, excluding the southwest states, Hawaii, and Alaska, and are also distributed throughout Mexico and South America (Arevalo and Gallina). Their geographic range spans from as far north as Great Slave Lake in the Northwest Territories to as far south as Bolivia, as well as extending from the western coast of Oregon to as far east as Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia (CWF). Over the last hundred years, whitetails have experienced a range expansion that can be largely attributed to increased human activity and development (VerCauteren 16). O. virginianus have also been introduced to certain areas of the Caribbean and Europe, including Cuba, Bahamas, and Jamaica, as well Finland, Serbia and the Czech Republic (Arevalo and Gallina).

3. White-tailed deer are variable in size, typically ranging from 1.8-2.4 metres and weighing between 50-136 kilograms (Nat’l Geographic). Males are normally larger than females, with each possessing an average summer weight of 68 and 45 kilograms, respectively (Smith 3). They generally adhere to Bergmann’s rule, in which larger individuals are found farthest from the equator (Smith 3). O. virginianus have an average lifespan of 6-14 years in captivity (Nat’l Geographic). In the wild, however, their lifespan is largely reduced to 4.5 years, with males living to 2.9 years and females to 6.5 years on average (Lopez, et al. 34). This decrease in lifespan can be attributed to the motor vehicle collisions, disease, and hunting whitetails are subject to in the wild (Lopez, et al. 34). In a study by Lopez, et al, deer-motor vehicle collisions accounted for over 50% of total deer mortality in 2003 (34).

4. O. virginianus are herbivores, feeding primarily on shoots and leafy material from grasses, vines, herbs, forbs, mosses, and occasionally mushrooms and blueberries during the spring and summer (Smith 7). As the availability of lush vegetation diminishes in autumn, whitetails depend heavily on acorns, nuts and twigs (Smith 7). In the winter months, their diet is based largely on availability and consists of winter-green forbs, sedges and woody browse (Smith 7). White-tailed deer are mainly nocturnal, grazing predominantly at dawn and dusk (Nat’l Geographic). They are considered ruminants, as they regurgitate, re-chew and eventually re-swallow their food. This facilitates the digestion of cellulose, and allows maximal nutrients to be obtained from their diet (U of Pennsylvania).

5. White-tailed deer are seasonally polyestrous, and commonly referred to as short day breeders since the decrease in daylight hours triggers the onset of the rut, or breeding season, which lasts from October to December (Cheatum 249). In females, estrus is induced by melatonin production in response to the shortening photoperiod, which boosts estrogen levels (Rue 31). A doe is fertile for 24 hours, and if not mated in that time, will enter a second estrus approximately 28 days later (Smith 5). In males, shortened day length increases melatonin and consequently testosterone levels, which initiates intrasexual combat between bucks wishing to establish dominance and compete for a mate (Rue 32). Does give birth to 1-3 fawns at a time, following a gestation period of about 202 days (Smith 5). Fawns weigh 2-4 kilograms at birth and are born with a reddish brown spotted coat, which enables them to remain camouflaged in the forest (Smith 5). They are nursed until 8 weeks of age, and weaned by 10 weeks (Smith 5). White-tailed deer reach sexual maturity by 1.5 years (Smith 5). At this age, bucks begin to grow antlers, which are secondary sex characteristics that grow and shed seasonally (Smith 5). Characteristic of its name, a whitetail communicates with other deer through the display of its tail’s white underside when it senses danger (Nat’l Geographic). O. virginianus also engage in vocal communication in the form of blows or snorts to warn others of a potential threat (“Deer Talk” 2). Chemical communication in white-tailed deer occurs through a behaviour known as rub-urination, in which deer urinate onto their tarsal glands to produce a strong scent (Moore and Marchinton 450). Analysis of the pheromones contained within this odour allows whitetails to gather information on an individual’s identity, dominance rank, physical condition and reproductive status (“Deer Talk” 4).

6. Natural predators of white-tailed deer include gray wolves, mountain lions, coyotes, bears, jaguars, and humans (Smith 7). However, several large predators have been extirpated which has resulted in overpopulation of the species (Hewitt 380).

1. Under the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, O. virginianus are listed as least concern (Arevalo and Gallina). Their relatively low risk of extinction can be attributed to the fact that they are the most abundant land mammal in North America (CWF).

Works Cited

Alverson, William S., et al. "Forests too deer: edge effects in northern Wisconsin." Conservation Biology 2.4 (1988): 348-358.

Bradshaw, William B. “All That Moola: The History of ‘Bucks’ and Other Words We Use to Mean Money.” The Huffington Post, 18 Oct. 2014, www.huffingtonpost.com/william-b-bradshaw/all-that-moola_b_6007430.html?. Accessed 23 Oct. 2016.

Cheatum, E. L., and Glenn H. Morton. "Breeding season of white-tailed deer in New York." The Journal of Wildlife Management 10.3 (1946): 249-263.

“Deer Talk – A Field Guide to Whitetail Communication.” Whitetails Unlimited, Inc., 2006, www.buckmanager.com/deer-management-articles/white-tailed-deer-communication.pdf. Accessed 23 Oct. 2016.

Gallina, S. and Lopez Arevalo, H. “Odocoileus virginianus.” The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, 2016, www.iucnredlist.org/details/42394/0. Accessed 23 Oct. 2016.

Hewitt, David G., ed. Biology and management of white-tailed deer. CRC Press, 2011.

Hulsey, Chuck and Joe Wiley. “How Deer Survive Winter.” Maine Dept. of Island Fisheries and Wildlife, 2010, www.maine.gov/ifw/hunting_trapping/pdfs/deer_yards.pdf. Accessed 23 Oct. 2016.

Lopez, Roel R., et al. "Survival, mortality, and life expectancy of Florida Key deer." The Journal of wildlife management (2003): 34-45.

Moore, W. Gerald, and R. Larry Marchinton. "Marking behavior and its social function in white-tailed deer." The behaviour of ungulates and its relation to management 1 (1974): 447-456.

Rue, Leonard Lee. Leonard Lee Rue III’s Deer Hunting Tips & Techniques. Stackpole Books, 2007.

Smith, Winston Paul. "Odocoileus virginianus." Mammalian species 388 (1991): 1-13.

“The Digestive System of A Deer.” University of Pennsylvania Arts & Sciences, www.sas.upenn.edu/~mytienne/deerms.pdf. Accessed 23 Oct. 2016.

VerCauteren, Kert. "The Deer Boom: Discussins on Population Growth and Range Expansion of the White-Tailed Deer." (2003): 15-20.

“White-Tailed Deer.” Hunterland Who’s Who, Canadian Wildlife Federation, www.hww.ca/en/wildlife/mammals/white-tailed-deer.html?referrer=https://www.google.ca/#sid5. Accessed 23 Oct. 2016.

“White-Tailed Deer.” National Geographic, www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/w/white-tailed-deer/. Accessed 23 Oct. 2016.