Summary ²

Ilex opaca, the American Holly, is a species of holly, native to the eastern United States, from coastal Massachusetts south to central Florida, and west to southeastern Missouri and eastern Texas.

Associated forest cover ³

In longleaf pine-slash pine (Pinus palustris-P. elliottii)  forests of the coastal plain, frequent prescribed fires are more  limiting to the presence of American holly than site. Within that  timber type, therefore, association is mainly with trees of  bottom lands, swamps, or other sites not subject to burning. In  the loblolly pine-shortleaf pine and upland hardwood types where  fire is not so common, holly, as well as numerous other  hardwoods, is found beneath the pines on a wide range of sites.  Because of its slow growth and relatively short stature, holly is  seldom dominant. It is an understory component of a number of  forest cover types (10). Common associates of holly in various  parts of its geographic range are shown in table 1.

   

    Table 1- Trees commonly associated with  American holly on various sites throughout its range      Tree species  Range¹        Sweetgum (Liquidamber styraciflua)  A  C  D  F  G  I    Flowering dogwood (Cornus florida)  A  B  D  G  I      American beech (Fagus grandifolia)  A  B  E  G  I      Red maple (Acer rubrum)
    A  F  G  H        White oak (Quercus alba)  B  C  F  G        Water oak (Quercus nigra)  A  C  G  I        Hickory (Carya spp.)  C  D  G          White ash (Fraxinus americana)  C  D  F          Yellow-poplar (Liriodendrom tulipifera)  D  F  G          Black tupelo (Nyssa sylvatica)  A  D  G          Soutern red oak (Quercus falcata)  A  F  G          Post oak (Quercus stellata)  A  C  H          Key to range symbols:
  A. East Texas (15,25).
  B. Southeast Louisiana (7).
  C. Mississippi River Delta (24).
  D. Georgia Piedmont (24).
  E. Kentucky; western hills (24).
  F. Southeast Pennsylvania (24).
  G. Virginia Coastal Plain (35).
  H. New Jersey and New York; maritime forests (28)
  I. North-central Florida (29).       

Associated forest cover ³

In longleaf pine-slash pine (Pinus palustris-P. elliottii)  forests of the coastal plain, frequent prescribed fires are more  limiting to the presence of American holly than site. Within that  timber type, therefore, association is mainly with trees of  bottom lands, swamps, or other sites not subject to burning. In  the loblolly pine-shortleaf pine and upland hardwood types where  fire is not so common, holly, as well as numerous other  hardwoods, is found beneath the pines on a wide range of sites.  Because of its slow growth and relatively short stature, holly is  seldom dominant. It is an understory component of a number of  forest cover types (10). Common associates of holly in various  parts of its geographic range are shown in table 1.

   

    Table 1- Trees commonly associated with  American holly on various sites throughout its range      Tree species  Range¹        Sweetgum (Liquidamber styraciflua)  A  C  D  F  G  I    Flowering dogwood (Cornus florida)  A  B  D  G  I      American beech (Fagus grandifolia)  A  B  E  G  I      Red maple (Acer rubrum)
    A  F  G  H        White oak (Quercus alba)  B  C  F  G        Water oak (Quercus nigra)  A  C  G  I        Hickory (Carya spp.)  C  D  G          White ash (Fraxinus americana)  C  D  F          Yellow-poplar (Liriodendrom tulipifera)  D  F  G          Black tupelo (Nyssa sylvatica)  A  D  G          Soutern red oak (Quercus falcata)  A  F  G          Post oak (Quercus stellata)  A  C  H          Key to range symbols:
  A. East Texas (15,25).
  B. Southeast Louisiana (7).
  C. Mississippi River Delta (24).
  D. Georgia Piedmont (24).
  E. Kentucky; western hills (24).
  F. Southeast Pennsylvania (24).
  G. Virginia Coastal Plain (35).
  H. New Jersey and New York; maritime forests (28)
  I. North-central Florida (29).       

Importance to livestock and wildlife ⁴

Birds are the principal consumers of American holly fruit, although
deer, squirrels, and other small animals eat them. At least 18 species
of birds, including songbirds, mourning doves, wild turkeys, and
northern bobwhite, are known to eat the fruit [42,46]. Cattle and deer
sometimes browse the foliage [9,18].

Importance to livestock and wildlife ⁴

Birds are the principal consumers of American holly fruit, although
deer, squirrels, and other small animals eat them. At least 18 species
of birds, including songbirds, mourning doves, wild turkeys, and
northern bobwhite, are known to eat the fruit [42,46]. Cattle and deer
sometimes browse the foliage [9,18].

Nutritional value ⁵

Lay [32] listed nutrient percentage values for American holly browse
collected in winter and summer on a pine-hardwood forest in Newton
County, Texas:

N-Free Phosphoric
Protein Fat Fiber extract Ash acid Calcium
Su 5.50 --- --- --- --- 0.14 ---
W 6.73 3.16 26.10 46.17 2.84 0.14 0.70

These levels are low for protein and deficient for phosphoric acid, but
high for calcium [32].

Nutritional value ⁵

Lay [32] listed nutrient percentage values for American holly browse
collected in winter and summer on a pine-hardwood forest in Newton
County, Texas:

N-Free Phosphoric
Protein Fat Fiber extract Ash acid Calcium
Su 5.50 --- --- --- --- 0.14 ---
W 6.73 3.16 26.10 46.17 2.84 0.14 0.70

These levels are low for protein and deficient for phosphoric acid, but
high for calcium [32].

Reaction to competition ⁶

Holly is classed as very shade  tolerant and can survive in the understory of most forest  canopies, but growth may be slowed and flowering and fruit set  reduced under shade (22). Leaf area increased and leaves were  greener under shade (30). In a mesic pine-hardwood forest of east  Texas, dominated by loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), southern  magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora), American beech (Fagus  grandifolia), white oak (Quercus alba), and water oak  (Q. nigra), holly was the principal understory species  (15). Its slow growth allows faster growing species of the same  age to overtop it. Shade and root competition in natural stands  reduced average height of hollies at age 16 by about 0.3 m (1 ft)  in medium shade and 0.61 m (2 ft) in heavy shade, compared with  those growing in full sunlight. Crown area was reduced by  one-third under medium shade and by more than one-half under  heavy shade (32).

Reaction to competition ⁶

Holly is classed as very shade  tolerant and can survive in the understory of most forest  canopies, but growth may be slowed and flowering and fruit set  reduced under shade (22). Leaf area increased and leaves were  greener under shade (30). In a mesic pine-hardwood forest of east  Texas, dominated by loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), southern  magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora), American beech (Fagus  grandifolia), white oak (Quercus alba), and water oak  (Q. nigra), holly was the principal understory species  (15). Its slow growth allows faster growing species of the same  age to overtop it. Shade and root competition in natural stands  reduced average height of hollies at age 16 by about 0.3 m (1 ft)  in medium shade and 0.61 m (2 ft) in heavy shade, compared with  those growing in full sunlight. Crown area was reduced by  one-third under medium shade and by more than one-half under  heavy shade (32).

Special uses ⁷

The attractiveness of its foliage is American holly's principal  value, whether as a forest tree, planted ornamental, or Christmas  decoration. The development of commercial holly orchards and the  education of landowners in the value and harvesting of holly  foliage have lessened the exploitation of wild hollies (13).

    The wood of American holly is tough and hard but not strong. It is  close-grained and moderately heavy, weighing about 640.7 kg/m³  (40 lb/ft³). Specific gravity is 0.61 (oven-dry) and about  0.50 green. It is one of the whitest woods known, with white  sapwood and ivory-white heartwood. Growth rings are almost  indistinct. The wood is used for veneer and to a limited extent  as pulpwood and lumber. Greatest use of the wood is for specialty  items such as fancy cabinet inlays, small pieces of furniture,  brush backs, handles, novelties, wood engravings, scroll work,  woodcuts and carvings, and measuring scales and rules for  scientific instruments; when dyed black to resemble ebony, it is  used for piano keys, violin pegs, and fingerboards (6,18,33).

    Birds are the principal consumers of the fruit, although deer,  squirrels, and other small mammals also eat them. Cattle  sometimes browse the foliage. At least 18 species of birds  including songbirds, mourning doves, wild turkeys, and the  bobwhite are known to eat the fruit (14,34). Perhaps the most  important in seed dispersal, however, are the large  winter-migrating flocks of small birds such as the cedar waxwing  and American goldfinch. The complete stripping of all berries  from a 10.7 m (35 ft) tall holly in a few seconds by a flock of  cedar waxwings has been observed.

    Despite the presence of saponins in the leaves and berries,  American holly is not considered poisonous to man or animals  (36). Although not as well known as gallberry (Ilex glabra)  as a honey plant, its nectar makes excellent honey (24).

Special uses ⁷

The attractiveness of its foliage is American holly's principal  value, whether as a forest tree, planted ornamental, or Christmas  decoration. The development of commercial holly orchards and the  education of landowners in the value and harvesting of holly  foliage have lessened the exploitation of wild hollies (13).

    The wood of American holly is tough and hard but not strong. It is  close-grained and moderately heavy, weighing about 640.7 kg/m³  (40 lb/ft³). Specific gravity is 0.61 (oven-dry) and about  0.50 green. It is one of the whitest woods known, with white  sapwood and ivory-white heartwood. Growth rings are almost  indistinct. The wood is used for veneer and to a limited extent  as pulpwood and lumber. Greatest use of the wood is for specialty  items such as fancy cabinet inlays, small pieces of furniture,  brush backs, handles, novelties, wood engravings, scroll work,  woodcuts and carvings, and measuring scales and rules for  scientific instruments; when dyed black to resemble ebony, it is  used for piano keys, violin pegs, and fingerboards (6,18,33).

    Birds are the principal consumers of the fruit, although deer,  squirrels, and other small mammals also eat them. Cattle  sometimes browse the foliage. At least 18 species of birds  including songbirds, mourning doves, wild turkeys, and the  bobwhite are known to eat the fruit (14,34). Perhaps the most  important in seed dispersal, however, are the large  winter-migrating flocks of small birds such as the cedar waxwing  and American goldfinch. The complete stripping of all berries  from a 10.7 m (35 ft) tall holly in a few seconds by a flock of  cedar waxwings has been observed.

    Despite the presence of saponins in the leaves and berries,  American holly is not considered poisonous to man or animals  (36). Although not as well known as gallberry (Ilex glabra)  as a honey plant, its nectar makes excellent honey (24).

Sources and Credits

1. (c) Dendroica cerulea, some rights reserved (CC BY-NC-SA), https://www.flickr.com/photos/dendroica/8374136163/
2. Adapted by Jonathan (JC) Carpenter from a work by (c) Wikipedia, some rights reserved (CC BY-SA), http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilex_opaca
3. (c) Unknown, some rights reserved (CC BY-NC), http://eol.org/data_objects/22778662
4. Public Domain, http://eol.org/data_objects/24247366
5. Public Domain, http://eol.org/data_objects/24264471
6. (c) Unknown, some rights reserved (CC BY-NC), http://eol.org/data_objects/22778669
7. (c) Unknown, some rights reserved (CC BY-NC), http://eol.org/data_objects/22778672

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