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Creeping-Jenny

Lysimachia nummularia

Summary 8

Lysimachia nummularia (syn. Lysimachia zawadzkii Wiesner) is a species of flowering plant in the family Myrsinaceae. Its common names include creeping jenny, moneywort, herb twopence and twopenny thot.

Distribution 9

More info for the term: cover

Moneywort is nonnative in North America, where it has a wide but discontinuous distribution. It occurs throughout the eastern United States east of the Mississippi River from Minnesota south to Louisiana, east to Georgia, and north to Maine. It occurs throughout southern Ontario, southern Quebec, and the Canadian Maritime provinces. It is also found in Nebraska, Kansas, and Colorado [105]. It occurs in the Pacific coastal states west of the Cascade Range in Washington and Oregon; in the northern Sierra Nevada in California; and in southwestern British Columbia and Vancouver Island [37,60,77,87]. Moneywort is more common in the central and eastern United States than in the West [37]. Plants Database provides a distributional map of moneywort.

Moneywort is native to Europe and western Asia [23]. See Bittrich [7] for a distributional map of moneywort in the species' native range. Moneywort was introduced from its native range to the United States for horticulture and as an ornamental ground cover [36,57,105]. It was present in the United States as early as 1739 [115]. It has escaped from cultivation and spread extensively. According to Mack [56,57], moneywort seeds were sold in the United States as early as 1833, and it was established outside cultivation in the United States by 1900.

Impacts and control 10

More info for the terms: cover, fire management, forbs, frequency, invasive species, natural, prescribed fire, swamp

Impacts: A variety of fact sheets, government publications, and weed management guides suggest that moneywort populations form dense mats that may exclude other plants, including native species [28,29,36,40,97,105]. Moneywort's ability to dominate an area is attributed to its fast vegetative spread [28,36,61]. In floodplain forest of the lower Wisconsin River, moneywort was absent from a silver maple-green ash-elm (Ulmus spp.) floodplain forest in the 1950s but was one of the most frequent groundlayer species (second only to reed canarygrass (Phalaris arundinacea)) about 50 years later. The forest had become wetter over the 50 years, and there was an apparent loss of 2 native species possibly as a result of moneywort and reed canarygrass spread [32].

Although moneywort can occasionally become dominant in plant communities (e.g., [46,97]), it typically does not substantially modify natural habitats over large areas [68]. Most fact sheets, government publications, and weed management guides indicated that moneywort had no more than a moderate impact on native vegetation [20,68,83,104,117]. In a western Massachusetts silver maple-pin oak-green ash/buttonbush floodplain swamp forest, moneywort changed little in frequency and cover over approximately 27 years (1969: <0.5% cover, 2% frequency; 1996: 1% cover, 9% frequency) [39].

Control: Moneywort control may be complicated by its ability to sprout from stems and possibly roots following control treatments [20,45,105]. A fact sheet suggested that control efforts should focus on cessation of planting, management of existing infestations, and minimization of disturbance to forests, wetlands, and other natural communities [105]. Control effectiveness may depend on a program that integrates multiple management procedures such as herbicides, prescribed fire, seeding, and other techniques that decrease moneywort spread and favor desired species [45,105].

In all cases where invasive species are targeted for control, no matter what method is employed, the potential for other invasive species to fill their void must be considered [10]. Control of biotic invasions is most effective when it employs a long-term, ecosystem-wide strategy rather than a tactical approach focused on battling individual invaders [58].

Prevention: A fact sheet suggests that moneywort establishment may be prevented by minimizing soil disturbance [105]. Consumers should also avoid purchasing and planting moneywort [20,105].

It is commonly argued that the most cost-efficient and effective method of managing invasive species is to prevent their establishment and spread by maintaining "healthy" natural communities 58,89 and by monitoring several times each year [43]. Managing to maintain the integrity of the native plant community and mitigate the factors enhancing ecosystem invasibility is likely to be more effective than managing solely to control the invader [38].

Weed prevention and control can be incorporated into many types of management plans, including those for logging and site preparation, grazing allotments, recreation management, research projects, road building and maintenance, and fire management [106]. See the Guide to noxious weed prevention practices [106] for specific guidelines in preventing the spread of weed seeds and propagules under different management conditions.

Fire: For information on the use of prescribed fire to control this species, see Fire Management Considerations.

Cultural control: Some sources indicate that moneywort may be controlled by establishing native grasses that shade out moneywort [45,105]. However, a fact sheet noted that moneywort can tolerate shading by taller grasses and forbs [36]. For more information on this topic, see Shade tolerance.

Physical or mechanical control: Activities that disturb moneywort plants, such as hand-pulling, may stimulate growth of new plants from fragmented stems and possibly roots or rhizomes. Management guidelines suggest that small infestations of moneywort may be eradicated by carefully digging out plants; however, all stems and roots must be removed for this technique to be effective [20,45,105]. In a seasonally flooded wetland prairie in the Willamette Valley, Oregon, moneywort cover declined 1 and 3 years after hand removal compared to pretreatment levels, but the difference was not significant. Moneywort cover also declined in control plots during the study [16].

Two sources reported that mowing does not control moneywort because the plants are typically too low to the ground to be impacted by mowing blades [45,105]. Moreover, physical disturbance by machinery may spread moneywort across fields. Fleming and Kanal [24] speculated mowing equipment may have spread moneywort from a lawn in Washington, DC, into nearby meadows and roadsides. In the Montezuma National Wildlife Refuge in central New York, moneywort was not present in grasslands succeeded to gray dogwood (Cornus racemosa), common buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica), and multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora) prior to mowing, but moneywort cover ranged from 0.6% to 0.9% 3 years after mowing. Moneywort was not present in control plots [84]. Several researchers reported moneywort in areas mowed annually or more frequently (e.g., [13,34,92]). In a seasonally flooded tall oatgrass (Arrhenatherum elatius) grassland in the Netherlands, mowing in June and again in September increased moneywort frequency during 8 years. The authors suggested that repeated reduction of grasses increased the frequency of moneywort and other low-lying plants. Moneywort frequency decreased or remained unchanged in areas mowed annually. Moneywort was absent in unmowed areas [70].

Some publications reported that moneywort may be killed by prolonged submergence in water [45,105]. However, a study in East Bohemia reported that moneywort survived flooding that covered the entire plant and that moneywort seed production was perhaps favored by the flooding [49]. For more information on this study, see Seed production. For more information on moneywort's soil moisture tolerance, see Site Characteristics.

Biological control: No biological controls of moneywort are known [45]. In the northern Front Range of Colorado, Al-Doghairi and Cranshaw [1] observed little to no visitation of moneywort by native arthropods typically used in biological control of pest plants (e.g., lady beetles (Coccinellidae), green lacewings (Chrysopidae), syrphid flies (Syrphidae), parasitic wasps (Braconidae), predatory wasps (Sphecidae), and techinid flies (Tachinidaea)).

Biological control of invasive species has a long history that indicates many factors must be considered before using biological controls. Refer to these sources: [109,118] and the Weed control methods handbook [102] for background information and important considerations for developing and implementing biological control programs.

Chemical control: Herbicides may control moneywort, although little information regarding the effectiveness of herbicides on moneywort was available as of this writing (2011) [45,105]. Herbicides are effective in gaining initial control of a new invasion or a severe infestation, but they are rarely a complete or long-term solution to weed management [11]. See the Weed control methods handbook [102] for considerations on the use of herbicides in natural areas and detailed information on specific chemicals. Integrated management: Integrated management includes considerations of not only killing the target plant but also of establishing desirable species and maintaining weed-free systems over the long term. Integrated management techniques may be more effective than individual methods at controlling moneywort, but as of this writing (2011) no information was available on this topic.

Habitat characteristics 11

More info for the terms: cover, density, facultative wetland species, frequency, hardwood, marsh, peat, tree, xeric

Moneywort establishes on lowland sites with a range of soil and climatic conditions. Moneywort occurs in full sun to full shade (see Shade tolerance) [36,113]. It commonly establishes on disturbed sites, though it may occur in relatively undisturbed native plant communities. A fact sheet reported that sites most vulnerable to moneywort establishment included floodplain forests and wetlands [20,61]. See Habitat Types and Plant Communities for detailed descriptions of some plant communities where moneywort occurs.

Soils: Moneywort grows best in moderately acidic to neutral [110], poorly drained soils [36,45,55,105].

Texture: Moneywort occurs in clays [16,55,93], silts [79,114], silt loams [44], sandy loams [2,41,42,44,93], loams, loamy sands [2], and sands [2,76,93]. Moneywort may also occur in areas dominated by boulders, stones, cobbles, or gravels [75,76,93]. Photo courtesy of Chris Evans, River to River CWMA, Bugwood.org

pH: Moneywort occurs in soils with pH ranging from 4.0 to 7.2 [2,41,44,110] but grows best in moderately acidic to neutral soils [110]. Along ditch banks in peat areas in its native range in the western Netherlands, moneywort cover and frequency were greater in moderately acidic to neutral (5.6-7.2 pH) soils (0.65% cover; 63% frequency) than in extremely acidic to strongly acidic (4.0-5.5 pH) soils (0.25% cover; 28% frequency) [110].

Soil fertility: Nitrogen and phosphorus are essential for plant growth. Since fire may result in substantial short- and long-term changes in availability of these nutrients (see [48] for a review), knowledge of moneywort's nitrogen and phosphorus requirements may yield important information regarding its potential for postfire establishment and spread. According to reviews, moneywort grows better in fertile soils [23,36]. In eastern cottonwood/black willow floodplain forests in Wisconsin, moneywort occurred in soils with a wide range of total nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, but it was most frequent in soils with the highest levels of these nutrients [2]. In contrast, in 28 restored and created wetlands throughout Illinois, moneywort decreased with increased nitrogen availability and also with wetland size (R²adj=0.21) [62]. Along ditch banks in peat areas in its native range in the western Netherlands, moneywort cover was greater in soils with low levels of applied nitrogen (0-250 kg/ha/year) (0.50% cover; 52% frequency) than in those with high levels of applied nitrogen (250-500 kg/ha/year) (0.33% cover; 26% frequency) [110]. In a peat moor in Somerset, England, moneywort showed a negative linear trend with increased nitrogen availability (P<0.05). Moneywort may have declined with increased nitrogen because of shading by tall grasses. The authors stated that moneywort is usually absent from areas with high nitrogen availability [67]. Moneywort is endomycorrhizal, and symbiotic arbuscular mycorrhizae increased resource uptake, growth, and flowering in moneywort in greenhouse experiments [35].

Moisture: Moneywort is most common on poorly drained, intermittently flooded soils (e.g., [41,42]). It also grows in shallow water and wet soil (e.g., [5,36,97]) and in dry soil (e.g., [97]). Along New River Gorge National River, moneywort occurred in wetlands, in areas frequently flooded during high water, in areas flooded occasionally, and in xeric communities [97]. Moneywort was considered an obligate wetland species in California and the Northeast and Central Plains regions of the United States and a facultative wetland species in the Southeast, North-central, and Northwest regions. Obligate species were those that occurred in wetlands >99% of the time, and facultative species were those that usually occurred in wetlands (67-99% of the time) but occasionally occurred in nonwetland habitats [82].

Moneywort appears to prefer intermittently flooded areas. In its native range in northeastern France, moneywort was found in periodically flooded (<1 month/year), occasionally flooded (1-3 months/year), and frequently flooded (>4 months/year) alluvial meadows, but was most frequent in occasionally flooded meadows [112]. In a sugar maple floodplain forest in Illinois, most moneywort plants occurred within 1.0 foot (0.3 m) of a streambank where flooding occurred frequently (flooded during 20% of observations), but plants also occurred as far away as 3.9 feet (1.2 m) from the streambank, where flooding occurred infrequently (5% of observations). Moneywort was absent from areas at greater distances from the streambank that rarely flooded (≤3% of observations) [6]. Along Little Otter Creek in Vermont, moneywort grew in poorly drained soils that were flooded each spring but did not grow in soils flooded for longer periods. Moneywort was absent from a narrow-leaved cattail (Typha angustifolia) marsh 16 feet (5 m) from the creek bank where soils were flooded or saturated in all but 1 to 2 months each year. At 33 feet (10 m) from the creek bank, the marsh abruptly transitioned into an open-canopy silver maple-swamp white oak (Quercus bicolor)-green ash forest with a shrubby understory. At greater distances from the creek bank, the tree canopy became more closed, the overstory trees became more diverse, flooding only occurred in spring, and moneywort became more common. It occurred with a density of 1,000 stems/ha at 49 feet (15 m) from the creek bank but 47,000 stems/ha at 164 feet (50 m) from the creek bank. At about 230 feet (70 m) from the creek bank, the forest transitioned to a closed-canopy yellow birch-sugar maple-American beech forest, and at 330 feet (100 m) from the creek bank moneywort density declined to 40,000 stems/ha [42]. In Stewart County, Tennessee, moneywort occurred in bottomland hardwood forests with soils that were generally saturated with water from winter to early summer [13].

Moneywort infrequently occurs in dry soils. In the Willamette Valley near west Eugene, Oregon, moneywort occurred in a seasonally flooded wetland prairie where standing water often occurred from November to April due to a shallow clay layer that impeded drainage. In the summer, soils dried out and became hard and deeply cracked, but moneywort survived to the end of the 3-year study [16]. Along the New River Gorge National River, moneywort occurred in Virginia pine-eastern redcedar-post oak woodland, a xeric community with exposed sandstone bedrock and an open canopy [97]. In Guthrie County, Iowa, moneywort occurred in dry and wet closed-canopy hardwood floodplain forests [27].

Climate: Moneywort occurs in temperate climates. As of this writing (2011), little is known about how climate affects moneywort distribution. Average maximum and minimum temperatures and average annual precipitation of some sites with moneywort in North America Location Average annual temperatures (°C) Average annual precipitation (mm) Minimum Maximum Alexander County, Illinois 10.1 19.4 1,197 [5] Washington, DC 3.4 31.2 988 [24] Prince Georges and Charles counties, Maryland 5.9 19.6 1,144 [94] Stewart County, Tennessee 2.6 25.4 1,268 [13]

In its native range in northeastern France, average annual rainfall was 36 inches (904 mm) and average annual temperature was 48.4 °F (9.1 °C) [112].

Elevation: In North America, moneywort occurs from sea level to at least 5,400 feet (1,600 m) [13,46,65,81]. Moneywort occurs from sea level to 597 feet (182 m) in its native range in the British Isles [23].

Topography: Moneywort generally occurs on level to gently sloping topography (e.g., [13,94,115]).

Sources and Credits

  1. (c) anonymous, some rights reserved (CC BY-NC), http://www.biopix.com/PhotosMedium/Lysimachia%20nummularia%2000008.JPG
  2. (c) Mark Denovich, some rights reserved (CC BY-NC-SA), http://www.flickr.com/photos/10546451@N00/174640701
  3. (c) anonymous, some rights reserved (CC BY-NC), http://www.biopix.com/PhotosMedium/Lysimachia%20nummularia%2000001.JPG
  4. (c) anonymous, some rights reserved (CC BY-NC), http://www.biopix.com/photos/JCS-Lysimachia-nummularia-64844.JPG
  5. (c) anonymous, some rights reserved (CC BY-NC), http://www.biopix.com/PhotosMedium/Lysimachia%20nummularia%2000003.JPG
  6. (c) Christopher Tracey, some rights reserved (CC BY-NC-SA), uploaded by Christopher Tracey
  7. (c) Nicolette Khan, some rights reserved (CC BY-NC), uploaded by Nicolette Khan
  8. Adapted by Kate Wagner from a work by (c) Wikipedia, some rights reserved (CC BY-SA), http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysimachia_nummularia
  9. Public Domain, http://eol.org/data_objects/24629608
  10. Public Domain, http://eol.org/data_objects/24629623
  11. Public Domain, http://eol.org/data_objects/24629618

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